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1
Brazil, coal mining
Measuring workers' exposure: bioassays & personal air samplers - U & Th < MDL, but Pb-210 detected in urine (result of radon exposure), another mine - no Th, but U > MDL
L-01
2
Poland, coal mining
225 MBq of Ra-226 and 380 MBq of Ra-228 are released daily to the rivers with mine effluents. Sometimes Ra concentration in rivers exceeds 70 Bq/m3 (the max. permissible limit for waste waters in Poland).
In coal mines as a result of precipitation of radium from radium-bearing waters radioactive deposits are formed. Concentration of radium may reach 400 Bq/g (similar to 3% uranium ore), highest dose rate - 40 microGy/hour. In the pipeline system, which was dewatering 11 mines for about 20 years approximately 20,000 tonnes of sediments were deposited (mainly BaSO4, with radium co-precipitated) with a total activity of about 600 GBq.
S-01
3
Poland, coal mining
Significant increase of radium concentration in bottom sediments. Deposition or adsorption of radium on bottom sediments may take place at a distance of several kilometres from the discharge points.
Ra-226 concentrations: average 5.1 Bq/g, max. 49 Bq/g; Ra-228 concentrations: average 1.4 Bq/g, max. 6.4 Bq/g
Total activity in the pond (life of the mine estimate) 240 GBq Ra-226 and 70 GBq Ra-228
M-01
4
Poland, coal mining
The system of the monitoring of the radiation hazard in Polish coal mines based on the monitoring of workplaces works since 1989 in all coal mines.
S-03
5
Germany, coal mining
Saliniferous pit water, which is released by hard-coal mining in the Ruhr District was investigated. These waters are high-mineralised NaCi-brines (up to 200 g/l) containing Ba up to 2500 ppm, Sr up to 1600 ppm and Ra-226 up to 60 Bq/l and Ra-228 up to 30 Bq/l.
This water is under oxygen-free conditions. The contact of the pit water with sulphate-bearing surface water results in the precipitation of Ba sulphate, radium is co-precipitated in the form of radiobaryte with Ra-226 concentrations up to several Bq/g.
Partly, radiobaryte is sedimentated within the rivers and along the riverbanks (up to 5 Bq/g Ra-226) or accumulated in sewage sludges formed in clarification plants (up to 1.5 Bq/kg Ra-226). Additionally, plants can take up radium, which can result in 226 Ra concentrations up to a few Bq/g.
W-02
6
USA, power generation
Estimated annual doses from power production from coal - worker 0.1-1.0 mSv, public 1-100 mSv
Worker gamma dose from storage or disposal of NORM is in order of 0.1 microSv/yr from coal ash.
S-06
7
European Union, coal mining & power generation
Coal mine de-watering plants - sludge up to 50-100 Bq/g
Coal and fly-ash - fly-ash typically 0.2 Bq/g U and Th (reported up to 10 Bq/g).
J-02
8
European Union, power generation
The main use of pulverised fuel ash (PFA) from coal fired power stations is building materials - substituting part of the cement with PFA, typically limited to 100 kg per m3 of concrete. Today only blends of coal are used.
1981: U-0.244 Bq/g, Th-0.122 Bg/g, dose for fly ash workers estimated at 0.63 mSv/year
1997: U-0.140 Bq/g, Th-0.120 Bq/g, dose for fly ash workers estimated at 0.12 mSv/year.
H-02
9
Germany, power generation
In the process of burning coal, most of radionuclides remain in the ash. More than 90% of radioactivity in coal is retained in the ash. Radionuclides' concentrations in fly ash exceed that in coal by a factor of 2 to 15. These concentrations are determined by the radionuclides' concentrations in coal, the ash content of the coal and the conditions at the power station.
World summary of activity concentrations in bituminous coal fly ash:
Ra-226=0.170 Bq/g, range: 0.007-0.611 Bq/g; Th-232=0.114 Bq/g, range: 0.007-0.514 Bq/g; K-40=0.652 Bq/g, range: 0.020-1.776 Bq/g
Activity concentrations in boiler slag, Germany:
Ra-226=0.146 Bq/g, range: 0.068-0.245 Bq/g; Th-232=0.100 Bq/g, range: 0.076-0.170 Bq/g; K-40=0.794 Bq/g, range: 0.337-1.240 Bq/g
Activity concentrations in bottom ash, Germany:
Ra-226 range 0.046-0.166 Bq/g; Th-232 range 0.025-0.120 Bq/g; K-40 range 0.196-0.742 Bq/g
Fly ash in concrete, Germany, radiological description:
Ra-226 range 0.006-0.029 Bq/g; Th-232 range 0.003-0.034 Bq/g; K-40 range 0.125-0.405 Bq/g
Masonry bricks with coal ash, Germany (Bq/g):
Brick: Ra-226 0.029, Th-232 0.031, K-40 0.487
Hollow brick: Ra-226 0.078, Th-232 0.063, K-40 0.591
Sand-lime brick: Ra-226 0.081, Th-232 0.062, K-40 0.859
P-05
10
Romania, power generation
Radionuclides' concentrations are significantly higher in fly ash than in the coal. The enrichment of natural radionuclides in fly ash increases as the size of the fly ash particles decreases. These smaller particles escape through the stack as they are not efficiently collected by filters.
Gamma-doses were the highest at locations 1-2 km from the stack as well as on the grounds of the stations in the direction of winds - 0.55 microGy/hr (in comparison with 0.43 background).
Vegetation samples show significant increase in radionuclides' content (Bq/g, averages):
Local samples: U-238 0.025, Ra-226 0.023, Po-210 0.027, Th-232 0.037, K-40 0.451.
Reference (other areas in Romania): U-238 0, Ra-226 0.003, Po-210 0, Th-232 0.002, K-40 0.505.
B-03
11

USA, power generation
Coal ash:
Total U (Bq/g) 0.1-0.6; Total Th (Bq/g) 0.03-0.3; Total Ra (Bq/g) 0.1-1.2
S-10
12

Egypt, coal burning - steel industry
<also relevant for iron>
Burning coal, source of coke used in the steel industry, about 25% of all coal is used for this. Coke is burned in blast furnace to reduce iron oxides, iron oxides to metallic iron. In blast furnace coke is also used as a burner for pre-heating the combustion air.
Hematite - main iron ore (Fe2O3). Limestone used as a flux in steeel industry - to render the impurities in raw material and to combine with the impurities to facilitate their removal from the metal.
Specific activities (Bq/g)
Coal: Th-234 0.059, Ra-226 0.026, Pb-214 0.015, Bi-214 0.015, Ac-228 0.008, Bi-212 0.008, Tl-208 0.008
Coke: Th-234 0.050, Ra-226 0.025, Pb-214 0.014, Bi-214 0.011, Ac-228 0.008, Bi-212 0.010, Tl-208 0.009
Iron ore (hematite) Th-234 0.460, Ra-226 0.245, Pb-214 0.221, Bi-214 0.212, Ac-228 0.006, Bi-212 0.003, Tl-208 nn/d
Limestone: Th-234 0.121, Ra-226 0.044, Pb-214 0.033, Bi-214 0.030, Th series - n/d
Fly ash: Th-234 0.041, Ra-226 0.023, Pb-214 0.018, Bi-214 0.016, Ac-228 0.010, Bi-212 0.011, Tl-208 0.009
Slag: Th-234 0.090, Ra-226 0.073, Pb-214 0.047, Bi-214 0.041, Ac-228 0.029, Bi-212 0.034, Tl-208 0.024.
I-03
13

Hungary, coal mining and burning
Coal mined in some regions of Hungary with elevated concentrations of Ra-226, up to 5- to 10-fold of world average. Coal slag and fly ash are enriched in Ra, - after burning. Two slags: (a) 4.03-7.89 Bq/g Ra-226, (b) 2.28-2.85 Bq/g Ra-226.
S-14
14

Hungary, coal mining and burning
Slag samples (Bq/g):
Th-232 0.016-0.119, Ra-226 0.16-2.89. Ra significantly above world average for building materialss of 0.05 Bq/g. Gamma dose rates are >0.08 microGy/hr (world average) and 0.12 (Hungarian average) - up to 0.65 microGy/hr Th-232 0.016-0.119, Ra-226 0.16-2.89. Ra significantly above world average for building materialss of 0.05 Bq/g. Gamma dose rates are >0.08 microGy/hr (world average) and 0.12 (Hungarian average) - up to 0.65 microGy/hr.
N-04
15
 Greece, coal burning
Lignite contains U and Th series, and K-40. Its burning is one of the sources of radiation exposure. Emissions from power stations contain radioisotopes such as Ra-226 that are discharged into the environment causing radiation exposure of the population. About 11.6 GBq/y of Ra-226 are discharged into environment from four coal-fired power plants in the Ptolemais valley in northern Greece. The collective committed equivalent dose per unit of energy generated is 0.011 person-Sv (GW/y), more than 15 times higher than for a modern type coal fired power plant. Individual equivalent doses are around 110 microSv (92 microSv from Ra-226 and 23 microSv from Rn-222 and its progeny).
P-09
16
 Hungary, coal power generation waste as a building material
Brown coal rich in uranium - 0.3-0.9 Bq/g. Slag and spoil of the coal were used in town of Ajka for building before 1960. In the survey of 86 buildings elevated levels of Rn-222 were found. The estimated annual surplus dose is 0.64 mSv for population of the whole town and 1.86 mSv for 7000 occupants of family houses built before 1960.
P-11
17
 India, coal mining
All levels in coal mines are below permissible levels: 144+61 Bq/m3 in two-incline mine and 315+71 Bq/m3 in five-incline mine. For comparison - the average in British coal mines is 74 Bq/m3, with a maximum of 518 Bq/m3.
R-08
18
 EU
The presence of U-238 and Th-232 in coal gives rise to activity levels generally in the range 0.03 to 0.05 Bq/g, but higher levels have been recorded in coal from particular sources. In the ash from combustion of coal, radioactive concentrations are enhanced by about a factor of 10 for most radionuclides, but by a factor of 100 for Po-210 and Pb-210. Various assessments of the radiological impact of coal ash have been undertaken that show the risk to workers and also to the public is low. Similarly, the radiological impact of radioactive emissions from power station stacks has been shown to be low.
E-08

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